T-phase detection within spectrograms of hydroacoustic data from the Arctic Ocean
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.26443/seismica.v5i2.2506Keywords:
seismoacoustic, Ocean Soundscape, automatic processing, T-phase, Arctic Ocean, underwater acousticsAbstract
Microseismicity in the Central Arctic remains understudied due to its remoteness from land stations. Hydrophone arrays can be used to detect earthquakes from their T-phases, components that propagate in water. This approach can provide a valuable alternative to traditional recording systems and improve the monitoring coverage. However, manual annotations of T-phases are a time-consuming process, and more automatic approaches are needed. Recent studies in T-phase detection consider machine learning techniques, but these methods are computationally intensive and sensitive to training data. In this study, an automated detector is presented utilising a Regions Of Interest (ROI) algorithm on spectrograms, requiring minimal parameter tuning and computational resources. The detector was applied to acoustic data recorded along the Nansen Basin from September 2019 to August 2020 during the CAATEX experiment. The ROI detector correctly identified 82 out of 96 manually labelled events across all moorings, with the majority of false detections linked to the presence of flow noise within hydrophones. The algorithm also characterised spectro-temporal properties of T-phase signals, with energy focused between 3 and 50 Hz, peaking at around 20 Hz. This method is robust against the varying underwater background noise conditions encountered and aids in studying the complexities of the T-phase signal structure.
References
Ainslie, M. A., Robinson, S. P., Harris, P. M., Tyack, P. L., Halvorsen, M. B., Cheong, S.-H., Livina, V., & Wang, L. S. (2025). Ocean soundscapes and trends from 2003 to 2021: 10–100 Hz. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 157(6), 4358–4384. https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0036831
Allen, R. V. (1978). Automatic earthquake recognition and timing from single traces. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 68(5), 1521–1532. https://doi.org/10.1785/BSSA0680051521
Athanase, M., Provost, C., Artana, C., Pérez-Hernández, D., Sennéchael, Bertosio, C., Garric, G., Lellouche, J.-M., & Prandi, P. (2020). Changes in Atlantic Water Circulation Patterns and Volume Transpots North of Svalbard Over the Last 12 Years (2008-2020). Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 126, e2020JC016825. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JC016825
Bazin, S., Royer, J.-Y., Dubost, F., Paquet, F., Loubrieu, B., Lavayssière, A., Deplus, C., Feuillet, N., Jacques, É., Rinnert, E., & Thinon, I. (2022). Initial results from a hydroacoustic network to monitor submarine lava flows near Mayotte Island. Comptes Rendus. Géoscience, 354(S2), 257–273. https://doi.org/10.5802/crgeos.119
Blackman, D. K., Nishimura, C. E., & Orcutt, J. A. (2000). Seismoacoustic recordings of a spreading episode on the Mohns Ridge. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 105(B5), 10961–10973. https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JB900011
Bohnenstiehl, D., Tolstoy, M., Dziak, R., Fox, C., & Smith, D. (2002). Aftershock sequences in the mid-ocean ridge environment: An analysis using hydroacoustic data. Tectonophysics, 354(1–2), 49–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(02)00289-5
Bottero, A., Cristini, P., & Komatitsch, D. (2020). On the Influence of Slopes, Source, Seabed and Water Column Properties on T Waves: Generation at Shore. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 177, 5695–5711. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-020-02611-z
Buckingham, M. J. (1991). On acoustic transmission in ocean-surface waveguides. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Physical and Engineering Sciences, 335(1639), 513–555. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.1991.0059
Canny, J. (1986). A Computational Approach to Edge Detection. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, PAMI-8(6), 679–698. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPAMI.1986.4767851
Cleverly, J., Blondel, Ph., Sagen, H., Dzieciuch, M., & Storheim, E. (2024). Automatic identification of biophonics and sea ice processes in large datasets from the High Arcticing Ocean. Proceedings from the International Conference on Underwater Acoustics 2024 (ICUA2024), Bath, United Kingdom. https://doi.org/10.25144/22225
de Groot‐Hedlin, C. D., & Orcutt, J. A. (1999). Synthesis of earthquake‐generated T‐waves. Geophysical Research Letters, 26(9), 1227–1230. https://doi.org/10.1029/1999GL900205
de Groot-Hedlin, C. D., & Orcutt, J. A. (2001). Excitation of T-phases by seafloor scattering. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 109(5), 1944–1954. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.1361057
de Melo, G. W. S., Parnell‐Turner, R., Dziak, R. P., Smith, D. K., Maia, M., do Nascimento, A. F., & Royer, J.-Y. (2021). Uppermost Mantle Velocity beneath the Mid‐Atlantic Ridge and Transform Faults in the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 111(2), 1067–1079. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120200248
Diachok, O. I. (1976). Effects of sea-ice ridges on sound propagation in the Arctic Ocean. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 59(5), 1110–1120. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.380965
Dodd, P. A., & others. (2022). Arctic Ocean 2022 Cruise Report [Techreport]. Norsk Polarinstitutt. https://hdl.handle.net/11250/3013026
Duengen, D., Burkhardt, E., & El‐Gabbas, A. (2022). Fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus) distribution modeling on their Nordic and Barents Seas feeding grounds. Marine Mammal Science, 38(4), 1583–1608. https://doi.org/10.1111/mms.12943
Dundas, V., Sagen, H., Beszczynska-Möller, A., Colosi, J., Dzieciuch, M. A., & Worcester P. F. (2026). Northward spreading of Atlantic Water into the Nansen Basin inferred from mooring observations. In Prep.
Dziak, R. P. (2001). Empirical relationship of T‐wave energy and fault parameters of northeast Pacific Ocean earthquakes. Geophysical Research Letters, 28(13), 2537–2540. https://doi.org/10.1029/2001GL012939
Dziak, R. P., Bohnenstiehl, D. R., Matsumoto, H., Fox, C. G., Smith, D. K., Tolstoy, M., Lau, T.-K., Haxel, J. H., & Fowler, M. J. (2004). P- and T-Wave Detection Thresholds, Pn Velocity Estimate, and Detection of Lower Mantle and Core P-Waves on Ocean Sound-Channel Hydrophones at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 94(2), 665–677. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120030156
Dzieciuch, M. A., Sagen, H., Worcester, P. F., Storheim, E., Colosi, J. A., Krishfield, R. A., Sandven, S., & Geyer, F. (2022). The coordinated arctic acoustic thermometry experiment - CAATEX. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 152, A72. https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0015587
Dzieciuch, M., Sagen, H., Worcester, P. F., Storheim, E., Akins, F. H., Sandven, S., Colosi, J. A., Kemp, J. N., & Leinebø, G. M. (2026). Transarctic acoustic transmissions during the Coordinated Arctic Acoustic Thermometry Experiment in 2019–2020. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 159, 1071–1085. https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0042233
Escobar-Amado, C. D., Badiey, M., & Pecknold, S. (2022). Automatic detection and classification of bearded seal vocalizations in the northeastern Chukchi Sea using convolutional neural networks. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 151(1), 299–309. https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0009256
Fox, C. G., & Dziak, R. P. (1998). Hydroacoustic detection of volcanic activity on the Gorda Ridge, February–March 1996. Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography, 45(12), 2513–2530. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0967-0645(98)00081-2
Fox, C. G., Matsumoto, H., & Lau, T.-K. A. (2001). Monitoring Pacific Ocean seismicity from an autonomous hydrophone array. Journal of Geophysical Research, 106(B3), 4183–4206. https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JB900404
Garibbo, S. (2023). Low Frequency Ocean Acoustic Processes [Phdthesis, Department of Physics, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom]. https://researchportal.bath.ac.uk/en/studentTheses/low-frequency-ocean-acoustic-phenomena/
Godin, O. A. (2021). Contributions of gravity waves in the ocean to T-phase excitation by earthquakes. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 150(5), 3999–4017. https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0007283
Goslin, J., Perrot, J., Royer, J.-Y., Martin, C., Lourenço, N., Luis, J., Dziak, R. P., Matsumoto, H., Haxel, J., Fowler, M. J., Fox, C. G., Lau, A. T.-K., & Bazin, S. (2012). Spatiotemporal distribution of the seismicity along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge north of the Azores from hydroacoustic data: Insights into seismogenic processes in a ridge–hot spot context. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 13(2). https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GC003828
Greenacre, M., Groenen, P. J. F., Hastie, T., D’Enza, A. I., Markos, A., & Tuzhilina, E. (2022). Principal component analysis. Nature Reviews Methods Primers, 2(100). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43586-022-00184-w
Guidotti, R., Monreale, A., Ruggieri, S., Turini, F., Giannotti, F., & Pedreschi, D. (2018). A Survey of Methods for Explaining Black Box Models. ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR), 51(5), 1–42. https://doi.org/10.1145/3236009
Guilbert, J., Vergoz, J., Schisselé, E., Roueff, A., & Cansi, Y. (2005). Use of hydroacoustic and seismic arrays to observe rupture propagation and source extent of the Mw = 9.0 Sumatra earthquake. Geophysical Research Letters, 32(15). https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL022966
Hildebrand, J. A. (2009). Anthropogenic and natural sources of ambient noise in the ocean. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 395, 5–20. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps08353
Hope, G., Sagen, H., Storheim, E., Hobæk, H., & Freitag, L. (2017). Measured and modeled acoustic propagation underneath the rough Arctic sea-ice. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 142(3), 1619–1633. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.5003786
Ingale, V. V., Bazin, S., Olive, J.-A., Briais, A., & Royer, J.-Y. (2023). Hydroacoustic Study of a Seismic Swarm in 2016–2017 near the Melville Transform Fault on the Southwest Indian Ridge. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 113(4), 1523–1541. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120220213
Ingale, V. V., Bazin, S., & Royer, J. Y. (2021). Hydroacoustic Observations of Two Contrasted Seismic Swarms along the Southwest Indian Ridge in 2018. Geosciences, 11(6), 225. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11060225
Ingale, V. V., Tepp, G., Dziak, R. P., & Parnell‐Turner, R. (2025). Detection and Analysis of Aleutian Arc Seismicity (2022-2023) Using an Autonomous Hydrophone Array. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 26(8). https://doi.org/10.1029/2025GC012320
Jakobssen, M., Mohammad, R., Karlsson, M., & others. (2024). The International Bathymetric Chart of the Arctic Ocean Version 5.0. Scientific Data, 11, 1420. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-024-04278-w
Jamet, G., Guennou, C., Guillon, L., Mazoyer, C., & Royer, J.-Y. (2013). T-wave generation and propagation: A comparison between data and spectral element modeling. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 134(4), 3376–3385. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4818902
Jeddi, Z., Ottemöller, L., Sørensen, M. B., Rezaei, S., Gibbons, S. J., Strømme, M. L., Voss, P. H., & Dahl‐Jensen, T. (2021). Improved Seismic Monitoring with OBS Deployment in the Arctic: A Pilot Study from Offshore Western Svalbard. Seismological Society of America, 92(5), 2705–2717. https://doi.org/10.1785/0220200471
Jolliffe, I. T., & Cadima, J. (2016). Principal component analysis: a review and recent developments. Philosophocal Transactions Royal Society A, 374, 20150202. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2015.0202
Keenan, R. E., & Merriam, L. R. L. (1990). Arctic abyssal T phases: Coupling seismic energy to the ocean sound channel via under-ice scattering. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 88(S1), S182–S182. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.2028815
Koenig, Z., Provost, C., Sennéchael, Garric, G., & Gascard, J.-C. (2017). The Yermak Pass Branch: A Major Pathway for the Atlantic Water North of Svalbard? Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 122, 9332–9349. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JC013271
Kong, L. S. L., Solomon, S. C., & Purdy, G. M. (1992). Microearthquake Characteristics of a Mid-Ocean Ridge along-axis high. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 97(B2), 1659–1685. https://doi.org/10.1029/91JB02566
Koulakov, I., Schlindwein, V., Liu, M., Gerya, T., Jakovlev, A., & Ivanov, A. (2022). Low-degree mantle melting controls the deep seismicity and explosive volcanism of the Gakkel Ridge. Nature Communications, 13(1), 3122. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-30797-4
Kubo, H., Naoi, M., & Kano, M. (2024). Recent advances in earthquake seismology using machine learning. Earth, Planets and Space, 76(1), 36. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40623-024-01982-0
Lavayssière, A., Bazin, S., & Royer, J. Y. (2024). Hydroacoustic Monitoring of Mayotte Submarine Volcano during Its Eruptive Phase. Geosciences, 14(6), 170. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences14060170
Lin, C.-W., Chuang, L. Y.-L., Huang, C.-F., Chen, C.-W., & Kuo, B.-Y. (2014). T-wave observations on ocean-bottom seismometers offshore Eastern Taiwan. OCEANS 2014-TAIPEI, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/OCEANS-TAIPEI.2014.6964430
Matsumoto, H., Dziak, R. P., Mellinger, D. K., Fowler, M., Haxel, J., Lau, A., Meinig, C., Bumgardner, J., & Hannah, W. (2006). Autonomous hydrophones at NOAA/OSU and a new seafloor sentry system for real-time detection of acoustic events. OCEANS 2006 MTS/IEEE Boston. IEEE, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1109/OCEANS.2006.307041
Merchant, N. D., Fristrup, K. M., Johnson, M. P., Tyack, P. L., Witt, M. J., Blondel, Ph., & Parks, S. E. (2015). Measuring acoustic habitats. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 13(4), 247–362. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.12330
Munk, W., Worcester, P. F. J. O., & Wunsch, C. (1995). Ocean acoustic tomography. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511666926
Okal, E. A. (2008). The generation of T waves by earthquakes. Advances in Geophysics, 49, 1–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2687(07)49001-X
Oliveira, T. C., Prior, M., Saragiotis, C., Park, J. H., Metz, D., Bittner, P., Qorbani, E., Khukhuudei, U., & Pérez‐Campos, X. (2025). Global Detection Capabilities of T Phases Using the IMS Hydrophone Network. Seismological Research Letters, 96(2A), 731–743. https://doi.org/10.1785/0220240418
Ozanich, E., Gerstoft, P., Worcester, P. F., Dzieciuch, M. A., & Thode, A. (2017). Eastern Arctic ambient noise on a drifting vertical array. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 142(4), 1997–2006. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.5006053
Park, M., Odom, R. I., & Soukup, D. J. (2001). Modal scattering: A key to understanding oceanic T‐waves. Geophysical Research Letters, 28(17), 3401–3404. https://doi.org/10.1029/2001GL013472
Parnell-Turner, R., Smith, D. K., & Dziak, R. P. (2022). Hydroacoustic monitoring of seafloor spreading and transform faulting in the equatorial Atlantic Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 127(7). https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JB024008
Pulli, J. J., & Upton, Z. M. (2002). Hydroacoustic observations of Indian earthquake provide new data on T‐waves. Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union, 83(13), 145–151. https://doi.org/10.1029/2002EO000090
Raumer, P.-Y., Bazin, S., Cazau, D., Ingale, V. V., & Royer, J.-Y. (2024). Données hydro-acoustiques passives 240 Hz annotées en océan Atlantique 2013 et océan Indien Sud 2018 et 2020. IFREMER. https://doi.org/10.12770/b618b24e-82f9-4b3b-9753-048e1f043ca6
Raumer, P.-Y., Bazin, S., Cazau, D., Ingale, V. V., Royer, J.-Y., & Lavayssière, A. (2024). An Open Source Hydroacoustic Benchmarking Framework for Geophonic Signal Detection. Seismica, 3(2), 1344. https://doi.org/10.26443/seismica.v3i2.1344
Rodríguez, O., Duarte, R. J., & Jesus, S. M. (2021). PAM2PY: a Python tool for sharing ocean soundscape data. Proceedings from the 6th Underwater Acoustics Conference and Exhibition 2021 (UACE2021), Virtual. https://doi.org/10.1121/2.0001471
Sagen, H., Dushaw, B. D., Skarsoulis, E. K., Dumont, D., Dzieciuch, M. A., & Beszczynska‐Möller, A. (2016). Time series of temperature in Fram Strait determined from the 2008–2009 DAMOCLES acoustic tomography measurements and an ocean model. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 121(7), 4601–4617. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JC011591
Sagen, H., Worcester, P. F., Dzieciuch, M. A., Geyer, F., Sandven, S., Babiker, M., Beszczynska-Möller, A., Dushaw, B. D., & Cornuelle, B. (2017). Resolution, identification, and stability of broadband acoustic arrivals in Fram Strait. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 141(3), 2055–2068. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4978780
Saurel, J. M., Retailleau, L., Deplus, C., Loubrieu, B., Pierre, D., Frangieh, M., Khelifi, N., Bonnet, R., Ferrazzini, V., Bazin, S., & Guyavarch, P. (2022). Combining hydro-acoustic sources and bathymetric differences to track the vent evolution of the Mayotte eruption, Mozambique Channel. Frontiers in Earth Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2022.983051
Schlindwein, V., Li, S., Kirk, H., & Schmidt-Aursch, M. C. (2025). Seismic soundscape of the Arctic Ocean: seasonal effects of sea ice and swell on deep-sea ocean bottom seismometer records. Geophysical Journal International, 242(1). https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggaf143
Schlindwein, V., Müller, C., & Jokat, W. (2005). Seismoacoustic evidence for volcanic activity on the ultraslow‐spreading Gakkel ridge, Arctic Ocean. Geophysical Research Letters, 32(18). https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL023767
Schlindwein, V., Müller, C., & Jokat, W. (2007). Microseismicity of the ultraslow-spreading Gakkel Ridge, Arctic Ocean: a pilot study. Geophysical Journal International, 169(1), 100–112. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2006.03308.x
Schreiner, A. E., Fox, C. G., & Dziak, R. P. (1995). Spectra and magnitudes of T‐waves from the 1993 earthquake swarm on the Juan de Fuca Ridge. Geophysical Research Letters, 22(2), 139–142. https://doi.org/10.1029/94GL01912
Schwardt, M., Pilger, C., Gaebler, P., P., H., & L., C. (2022). Natural and anthropogenic sources of seismic, hydroacoustic, and infrasonic waves: Waveforms and spectral characteristics (and their applicability for sensor calibration). Surveys in Geophysics, 43(5), 1265–1361. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09713-4
Shapiro, L. G. (1996). Connected Component Labeling and Adjacency Graph Construction. Machine Intelligence and Pattern Recognition, 19, 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0923-0459(96)80011-5
Slack, P. D., Fox, C. G., & Dziak, R. P. (1999). P wave detection thresholds, Pn velocity estimates, and T wave location uncertainty from oceanic hydrophones. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 104(B6), 13061–13072. https://doi.org/10.1029/1999JB900112
Sohn, R. A., & Hildebrand, J. A. (2001). Hydroacoustic earthquake detection in the Arctic Basin with the Spinnaker Array. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 91(3), 572–579. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120000099
Sukhovich, A., Irisson, J.-O., Perrot, J., & Nolet, G. (2014). Automatic recognition of T and teleseismic P waves by statistical analysis of their spectra: An application to continuous records of moored hydrophones. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 119(8), 6469–6485. https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JB010936
Takemura, S., Kubota, T., & Sandanbata, O. (2024). Successive Tsunamigenic Events Near Sofu Seamount Inferred From High-Frequency Teleseismic P and Regional T Waves. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 129(10). https://doi.org/10.1029/2024JB029746
Talandier, J., & Okal, E. A. (1987). Seismic detection of underwater volcanism: The example of French Polynesia. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 125(6), 919–950. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00879361
Talandier, J., & Okal, E. A. (1998). On the mechanism of conversion of seismic waves to and from T waves in the vicinity of island shores. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 88(2), 621–632. https://doi.org/10.1785/BSSA0880020621
Talandier, J., & Okal, E. A. (2001). Identification criteria for sources of T waves recorded in French Polynesia. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 158(3), 567–603. https://doi.org/10.1007/PL00001195
Tan, T., Godin, O. A., Walters, M. W., & Joseph, J. E. (2025). Physics-informed and machine learning-enabled retrieval of ocean current speed from flow noise. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 157(2), 1084–1096. https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0035800
Thode, A. M., Kim, K. H., Blackwell, S. B., Greene Jr., C. R., Nations, C. S., McDonald, T. L., & Macrander, A. M. (2012). Automated detection and localization of bowhead whale sounds in the presence of seismic airgun surveys. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 131(5), 3726–3747. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.3699247
Tollefsen, D., & Buen, H. (2022). Wind- and tidal driven ambient noise in seasonally ice-covered waters north of the Svalbard archipelago. JASA Express Letters, 2(8), 086001. https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0013687
Tolstoy, I., & Ewing, M. (1950). The T phase of shallow-focus earthquakes. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 40(1), 25–51. https://doi.org/10.1785/BSSA0400010025
Tolstoy, M., & Bohnenstiehl, D. R. (2005). Hydroacoustic Constraints on the Rupture Duration, Length, and Speed of the Great Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake. Seismological Research Letters, 76(4), 419–425. https://doi.org/10.1785/gssrl.76.4.419
Ulloa, J., Haupert, S., Latorre, J., Aubin, T., & Sueuer, J. (2021). scikit-maad: An opensource and modular toolbox for quantitative soundscape analysis in Python. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 12, 2334–2340. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.13711
Vacquié-Garcia, J., Lydersen, C., Marques, T. A., Aars, J., Ahonen, H., Skern-Mauritzen, M., Øien, N., & Kovacs, K. M. (2017). Late summer distribution and abundance of ice-associated whales in the Norwegian High Arctic. Endangered Species Research, 32, 59–70. https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00791
Vaezi, Y., & van der Baan, M. (2015). Comparison of the STA/LTA and power spectral density methods for microseismic event detection. Geophysical Journal International, 203(3), 1896–1908. https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggv419
Walker, D. A., McCreery, C. S., & Hiyoshi, Y. (1992). T-phase spectra, seismic moments, and tsunamigenesis. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 82(3), 1275–1305. https://doi.org/10.1785/BSSA0820031275
Wiggins, S. M., Roch, M. A., & John A. Hildebrand, J. A. (2010). TRITON software package: analyzing large passive acoustic monitoring data sets using MATLAB. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 128(4_Supplement), 2299–2299. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.3508074
Williams, C. M., Stephen, R. A., & Smith, D. K. (2006). Hydroacoustic events located at the intersection of the Atlantis (30circ N) and Kane (23circ 40’ N) Transform Faults with the Mid‐Atlantic Ridge. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 7(6). https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GC001127
Withers, M., Aster, R., Young, C., Beiriger, J., Harris, M., Moore, S., & Trujillo, J. (1998). A comparison of select trigger algorithms for automated global seismic phase and event detection. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 88(1), 95–106. https://doi.org/10.1785/BSSA0880010095
Wolfe, C. J., Purdy, G. M., Toomey, D. R., & Solomon, S. C. (1995). Microearthquake characteristics and crustal velocity structure at 29°N on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge: The architecture of a slow spreading segment. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 100(B12), 24449–24472. https://doi.org/10.1029/95JB02399
Worcester, P. F., Dzieciuch, M. A., & Sagen, H. (2020). Ocean Acoustics in the Rapidly Changing Arctic. Acoustics Today, 16(1), 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1121/AT.2020.16.1.55
Yang, Y., & Forsyth, D. W. (2003). Improving Epicentral and Magnitude Estimation of Earthquakes from T Phases by Considering the Excitation Function. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 93(5), 2106–2122. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120020215
Yoon, C. E., O’Reilly, O., Bergen, K. J., & Beroza, G. C. (2015). Earthquake detection through computationally efficient similarity search. Science Advances, 1(11). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1501057
Downloads
Additional Files
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Marianna Anichini, Jonathan Cleverly, Mathilde B. Sørensen, Philippe Blondel, Espen Storheim, Hanne Sagen, Matthew Dzieciuch
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Funding data
-
HORIZON EUROPE European Research Council
Grant numbers 101094621 -
UK Research and Innovation
Grant numbers 10071903
